![]() ![]() However, only a limited number of field observations can be found in the published literature. The phenomenon of three-dimensional (3D) acoustic propagation, including horizontal refraction and diffraction along a sloping bottom or around physical obstructions, is well understood both theoretically and from a numerical modeling perspective. The arrival angle measurements on the tetrahedral array show the complex propagation patterns, including the diffracted energy in the island shadow and acoustic energy refracted away from the island. The evidence of horizontal caustics of the sound was shown in the parabolic equation and modal ray models by comparing to the arrival pattern observed in the data. This analysis found that the modes at higher frequencies can propagate closer to the coast of the island with shallower modal cutoff depths, where the sound energy penetrates the sloping seafloor at supercritical incidence. The 3D modal ray calculation provided additional insight into the frequency dependence of the signal spreading. The observed shadow zone boundary was consistent with the prediction made by a 3D sound propagation model incorporating high-resolution bathymetry and realistic sound speed obtained from a data-assimilated regional ocean model. Linear frequency modulated chirp signals, centered at 1 kHz with a 400 Hz bandwidth, were transmitted from a ship moving out of the acoustic shadow zone blocked by the island from the perspective of the hydrophone array. The three-dimensional (3D) propagation effects of horizontal refraction and diffraction were measured on a tetrahedral hydrophone array deployed near the coast of Block Island, RI.
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